Hamlet Eulogy Essay

Eulogy on behalf of Hamlet Good lords and ladies of Elsinore, I appreciate your attendance here today on this particularly significant occasion. We gather here, to offer our gratitude and sorrows respectively for the life and death of the greatest man I have ever known, Prince Hamlet. I understand that no assortment of words could possibly convey the degree of Hamlet’s stature, so I only hope that God will assist me in articulating an outline, a sample, of the masterpiece that was Prince Hamlet. Although fate has already accomplished its deed here on earth, I know Hamlet’s soul will proceed to the heavens, where perhaps he may live in a kingdom worthy of his gracious presence. Hamlet was the only remaining rose amongst a garden bed overrun by weeds, confronted with treasury, betrayal and distrust from every direction. He rose above the superficial faces of the corrupted Royal court, and exposed Claudius for who he really was. Loved by nobles, commoners and players alike, Hamlet was the most remarkable Prince we have ever known. Beloved son of the late King Hamlet and Queen Gertrude, royal courtier and loyal friend to many, he will not be forgotten. Forever in our hearts, Hamlet will remain in the highest regard as an individual of indisputable courage and nobility, steadfast loyalty and particular contemplation. Courage is best verified in a man’s darkest days, in moments of unrelenting pressure or despair. Good Hamlet was left stranded in centre of a court full of corruption, facing immediate grief regarding his father’s death and his mother’s almost immediate remarriage. It was through his unwavering courageousness and nobility that he was able to proceed with not only his task of avenging his father in ending the corrupted reign of King Claudius, but also in restoring natural order to our country. His courage proved unflinching when put to the ultimate test when he was presented with death and uncertainty in his final days. It was indeed Hamlet’s absolute nobility and true valour that lead him to accept his fate for the good of the nation. ————————————————- It was predominately through Hamlet’s heroic loyalty that his validity as a valuable friend and son was established and retained. Entrusted with an arduous task from the ghost of his father, he immediately felt obliged in  carrying out the murder of Claudius by the virtue of previous loyalties. I am so grateful for the unconditional loyalty Hamlet induced upon me ever since our days studying at Wittenberg. * I only hope that the heavens will graciously appreciate a man of Hamlet’s worth.

Which IB Courses Can I Take Online Can I Get an Online IB Diploma

Which IB Courses Can I Take Online Can I Get an Online IB Diploma SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Wow, the world has changed a lot for us old folks who graduated in high school in 2010. While you cannot get your IB diploma or International Baccalaureate diploma online, you cantake several IB coursesonline if you are enrolled in an IB World School (I'll go into more detail on this below). In this article, I'll cover: Who can take IB courses online? Why would you want to take IB coursesonline? Do the online IB classes add to your diploma? What do you mean you can't get your IB Diploma online? How do online IB courses work? The IB courses that are not currently available The IB coursesthat are available and where to find them online. For more in-depth descriptions of what each class entails, check out our other article on IB Complete Course List of Offerings. For an in-depth overview of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (which will be helpful to understand before reading this article), check out our other article on What is the IB Program, and What are IB Classes? Who Can Take IB Courses Online? Unfortunately at this point in time, Pamoja Education (the only current provider of online IB courses) only allows students who are currently enrolled in theDiploma Programmeor theCareer-related Programmeat an IB World School (a school that offers an IB program) to take their online classes. In other words, onlystudents currently in an IB program can take IB courses online. If you are currently at an IB World School and would like to take IB courses online, contact your IB program coordinator for help with the enrollment process. Why Would You Want to Take IB Courses Online? Taking IB classes online is a great way to access IB classes that your IB world school may not currently offer. For example, if you are very passionate about Film, but your IB world school does not offer Film SL or HL, you can take IB Film SL online through Pamoja Education. Additionally, online IB courses can be great options for IB students who need a more flexible schedule. For example, if you need to get out of school early because you also play a competitive sport or need to work a job, online courses give you that flexibility. Do the Online IB Classes Add to Your Diploma? Yes, taking IB classes online will help you get your IB diploma.You can take classes from 4 of the 6 required subject groups online, and you can also complete part of the core (Theory of Knowledge class and Extended Essay) online. I will explain this in more detail below. However, at this point in time, you cannot get an IB Diploma online. What Do You Mean You Can't Get Your IB Diploma Online? You cannot get an IB Diploma online yet because you are not able to complete all of the requirements for an IB Diploma online. Some of the required classes (in Literature and Science) aren't offered online. To read more about the requirements, read our article:What is the IB Program, and What are IB Classes?. As a brief overview, to qualify to receive your IB Diploma, you must take a class from each of these six subject groups: Group 1: Language and literature Group 2: Language acquisition Group 3: Individual and societies Group 4: Science Group 5: Mathematics Group 6: Arts Yousubstitute the Group 6 requirement with an additional course from one of the other 5 groups. In addition to these classes, you must also complete the 3 requirements that make up what is known as the Core: Theory of Knowledge / TOK A class that is a mixture of philosophy and politics. It is the only class for whichdo you do not take a written exam. Extended Essay / EE A 4,000-word mini-thesis on the topic of your choosing. You must have an IB teacher supervising your work. Creativity, Action, Service / CAS hours A project that encourages students to get involved in extracurricular activities. Students must complete a creative project (such as learning to play guitar), an action project (such as learning to rock climb or play a varsity sport), and a service project (such as feeding the homeless). How Do Online IB Courses Work? To enroll in an online class, you must ask your IB program coordinator. According to Pamoja Education, "In online classrooms of approximately 25 students from around the world, teachers introduce weekly lessons, guide discussion and provide feedback to stimulate critical thinking and promote â€Å"lifelong learning† habits... Live lessons stimulate simultaneous interactions in the classroom; forums and blogs encourage students to reflect on their learning; online resources help support students in their learning; news feeds bring subjects alive within the context of current events and issues." All materials are provided online and saved online. Live lessons are saved and archived so that they can be viewed at any time. All work is submitted online, and teachers review the work and provide individual feedback.The classes are structured into a typical school year. There are 2 semesters with 2 terms in each semester with a short break between the terms. Just as most high schools have 4 quarters split into 2 semesters with a spring (and sometimes fall) break. So, what IB classes are not available online? Classes That Are Currently Available Online Group 2: Language Acquisition Classical languages SL/HL Group 3: Individual and Societies Geography SL/HL History SL/HL Philosophy HL Social and cultural anthropology SL/HL World religions SL Global Politics SL/HL Group 4: Science Biology SL/HL Computer Science SL/HL Chemistry SL/HL Design Technology SL/HL Physics SL/HL Sports, exercise and health science (SL only) The lack of these courses also prevents you from getting your IB Diploma online.You are required to take one of these courses to get your IB Diploma. Group 5: Mathematics Further Mathematics HL Mathematical studies SL Group 6: Arts Dance SL/HL Theatre SL/HL Film HL Visual Arts SL/HL Music SL/HL Classes That Are Currently Available Online and Where to Find Them All of these online classes are offered through Pamoja Education: Group 1: Language and Literature Language A: literature SL/HL Language A: language and literature SL/HL Literature and performance SL Group 2: Language Acquisition Spanish B SL Spanish ab initio Mandarin ab initio French ab initio Group 3: Individual and Societies Business management SL Business management HL Economics SL Economics HL Information technology in a global society SL Information technology in a global society HL Philosophy SL Psychology SL Psychology HL Group 5: Mathematics Mathematics: Analysis and Approaches HL Mathematics: Analysis and Approaches SL Mathematics: Applications and Interpretations HL Mathematics: Applications and Interpretations SL Group 6:Arts Film SL The Core These classes/projects are required to receive your IB diploma. Theory Of Knowledge / TOK Extended Essay / EE While this is not a class, if you are pursuing a diploma from an IB School, you will need to complete an Extended Essay. Through Pamoja Education, you can get access to an extended essay supervisor. They have over 100 teachers. What’s Next? Are you hoping to squeeze in some extra IB classes? Learn about the IB courses offered online. Studying for the SAT? Check out our complete guide to the SAT.Taking the SAT in the next month? Check out our guide to cramming. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

5 Essential Resume Tips for Recent Graduates

5 Essential Resume Tips for Recent Graduates If you’re a recent graduate or are about to graduate, chances are you’ve been giving your resume a lot of thought. And with so much contradicting information in the marketplace about how to write a proper resume, it can be confusing. The reality is that resume advice that pertains to a mid-level professional or senior executive may not apply to a new grad. So, with that in mind, the team at ResumeSpice has put together a list of essential resume tips for new grads. Consider this list your recent grad resume starter kit. Nail these five things and you’ll be in great shape.Start with your educationMost resumes should begin with work experience – the exception is a new grad resume. Since a new grad’s education is the activity that has been taking up most of their time and energy in the recent past, it’s important to highlight it up front. If you had a high GPA, be sure to include that as well. What is considered high varies from school to school and major to major, so ask around. A professor, other recent grads, and counselors can all provide input. All 3.2 GPA’s were not created equally.List all internships, work studies, honors or awards, study abroad programs, as well as other relevant activities that show your experience outside of school. In lieu of full-time jobs, internships are typically considered the most valuable extra-curricular activity, as they help demonstrate real world skills and value that you can immediately bring to an employer. Treat an internship like you would any other job, by listing out your responsibilities and accomplishments in bullet form.Include all work experience, even if it seems irrelevantSure, managing a shoe store may not have been your dream job, nor does is exactly match the career path you’ve chosen, but when you’re a recent graduate, all experience matters.When you’re applying for an entry-level position, it’s about translating the duties and skill s from your current or past positions to a language that speaks to the hiring manager.For example, if you’re applying to a marketing coordinator role and you managed a retail store, use relevant marketing experience from the store and intertwine it with the job requirements for the role you’re seeking. It’s likely that you staged store fronts, placed signage around the store, or made sure every customer received a flyer of the upcoming promotions. That’s all relevant; you just have to use the right language.List extracurricular activities or volunteer experienceUnder your work experience section, you should include extracurricular or volunteer work that is professionally relevant. If you participated in student government activities and/or volunteered your skills to an organization, it will not only help fill out your resume, but it will also give the recruiter a glimpse of who you are and how well you will fit within the organization.If you’ve bee n volunteering your time to a cause you care about, that’s great! Do be aware that some causes / organizations may alienate some prospective employers, so be careful about religious or political affiliations, for example – unless you don’t mind potentially turning off a group of employers. Only you can make that call.Keep it cleanWe’re talking about the format here. It’s tempting to want to put together a highly-stylized, unique, or pretty resume, but the reality is that recruiters value clarity and simplicity over design.The reality is that due to the volume of resumes they receive, most recruiters and hiring managers don’t read resumes – they skim them. And a lot of stylizing can make your information hard to read. So you’ll want to make sure all the fat is cut away (graphics, lines, too much formatting, etc.) and that what’s left is the lean takeaway that recruiters really care about (experience, education, tenure, et c.)The only exception is if you’re a creative professional, such as a designer. In that case, a little creative leeway is appropriate, but we also recommend focusing most of your creative energy on putting together a great online portfolio and providing the link to it on your resume. That will get you a lot further in the process than over formatting your resume.Write a great cover letterWe know that applying for jobs can be tedious and time-consuming, so the last thing you want to do is submit a cover letter when one isn’t required, but we urge you to view it through a different lens.Writing a great cover letter can set you apart. It gives you more space to talk about your background, why you’re interested in the role, and what makes you uniquely qualified. Just be sure you’re tying everything back to the job.For example, if one of the job requirements is attending tradeshows on behalf of the company, you can write something along the lines of, â€Å"Du ring my three years as treasurer within the student government organization, I represented the university during summits and competitions.†There are, of course, many ways to write a resume. But when you’re a recent graduate, writing the resume that will get you hired can sometimes feel impossible. Use these five pointers as a way to guide your approach. If you’re still stumped, you can check with your university to see if they offer resume critiques or you could consider hiring a professional service such as ResumeSpice.  Savannah Ober is a resume writer and career consultant at ResumeSpice. In addition to being a resume expert, Savannah is also an experienced corporate communications professional, working with one of the world’s largest global companies. Savannah has written recruiting advertisements for trade publications, created marketing collateral, written press releases and blogs, and developed social media content. Savannah holds a BA in English, creative writing.

The X and the Y Theories of Management Research Paper

The X and the Y Theories of Management - Research Paper Example Some leaders consider the role of decision making as solely theirs and engage no one else even when the issue at hand requires them to do so. Such managers allow no flexibility on the workers and expect them to follow the set guidelines. Other leaders are accommodating and therefore, give some level of independence to their employees, encourage teamwork, involve employee’s opinions in decision-making and often delegate duties. The X and Y theories are based on assumptions that human personality and behaviors differ and play a major role in determining the appropriate management styles to be applied. This paper focuses on the different management theories applied in managing different job types. The X theory by McGregor posits that management should intervene on the performance of its employees. This is by controlling their activities, altering their behaviors to guarantee their actions, are in line with wants of the organization, as well as inspiring them to ensure they direct all their effort towards progression of the organization (Fisher 12-17). The theory explain this by claiming that most human beings, hate responsibilities, dislike work, have no ambition, and thus require to be directed and sometimes threatened to work effectively. Another argument to support this theory is that people resist change, put their own needs above those of the organization, and value their security beyond all other things. Leaders using this theory in management frequently turn out to be autocratic (Stewart 2). The Y theory on the other hand, claims that people are not dormant and are always willing to direct their efforts towards the success of the organizations. However, the management is insensitive to their need of appropriate working environment. This would enable them grow individually and be in a position to contribute to organizational growth. The theory further argues that most employees prefer rewards to satisfy their self-esteem by encouraging them to be inve ntive, and imaginative other than work related rewards. Such rewards make the employee to feel secure and more committed to their work. Neither the X nor the Y theory is good or bad because they apply to different types of jobs and work settings. However when applied in wrong job settings, conflicts could arise in the management. Usage of theory Y by some managers can cause them loose control and being incapable of making final decisions as required. Theory Y could result in the manager being too judgmental on the doings of employees (Stewart 3). The X theory is applicable in a number of job types especially in the public service where organization structures obligate only those in higher administrative ranks to make and oversee implementation of policies. Revenue collection authorities are a good example of managements that follow the X theory. They fear that not only the citizens but also their employees may possibly cheat on them. They assume that employees are untrustworthy and thus try to monitor, supervise, and, control their operations. The employees end up wasting plenty of time writing reports to validate their decisions (Barnett web). They therefore, underperform, which emphasizes the manager’s mentality that they are incompetent. In military and most of the police departments, the superiors give orders that all those under them have to carry out without questioning their

Critical Analysis of Company Value Chain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critical Analysis of Company Value Chain - Essay Example The firm has communicated the standards required, an aspect that has improved the strategic relationship with the suppliers. Starbucks operations are undertaken in more than 65 countries across the world. According to the company’s profile, there are 8870 subsidiaries that are operated by the company across the world. Moreover, there are approximately 8000 stores that have been licensed to operate on behalf of the company. Starbucks’ outbound logistics involves selling products through its stores without the use of the intermediaries. However, currently, some of the company products are being sold through various leading supermarkets in the country. Starbucks, mainly depend on the word-of-mouth to market its products and services. This is achieved through provision of high quality products that meets the tastes and preferences of the target market (Dijk, Trienekens, & European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes 2012). Nevertheless, in some cases, the company gives prospecting customers an opportunity to sample the products. Furthermore, the company uses audio, visual, and print media in order to reach the target market. This plays a significant role in attracting the customers towards the company’s products. The company’s main objective is driven from its mission statement. It entails providing quality and superior level customer services. Subordinates are encouraged to put more focus towards the satisfaction of the customers. This has been critical to the overall success of the company. Storage is one initiative that costs Starbucks a lot of money. In many cases, the firm is forced to store excess products in anticipation for better prices. The costs of electricity, administration, and maintenance of the stores increases the overall costs of production. However, in order to reduce the costs of storage, the company can contract a logistic company to operate its stores. This is

A Formal Business Letter to The Rose Theatre Kingston Essay

A Formal Business Letter to The Rose Theatre Kingston - Essay Example As a larger company with profits above  £1.5M you may be taxed at 30% of profit per annum. Another salient point is the advantage that British theatres have in their attraction for tourists. Consider that technology now allows relatively inexpensive advertising on a wider, international scale thanks to the Internet. The inclusion of your theatre on tourist group itineraries could increase exposure of your brand and aid in more consistently achieved full-houses. Further your brand name – The Rose Theatre – is certainly internationally marketable. Home/local productions appear to attract your largest audiences. Careful analysis is needed to identify the ideal balance of productions you stage: would designing your annual program around a majority of such local performances ensure optimum audience numbers, and hence sustainable and predictable margins? Within this analysis it must be noted that the auditorium at The Rose is exceptionally well-equipped and this factor should also aid in attracting â€Å"big name† producers, actors and performers – should more marketing resources be directed at attracting draw card â€Å"names† and hence a wider-ranging audience? Finally but perhaps most importantly, the upgrading of the facilities at the theatre, peripheral to the performance hall, must receive priority. The foyer, the ticket sales lobby, and the faà §ade must aid in raising the profile of the theatre. A strategy to source funding for such improvements is required as many of the proposals in this letter would have their implementation enhanced by a more traditional and inviting â€Å"complete† theatre experience at your venue. Hence a summary of three suggestions each of which will help to enable the ultimate priority: planning the correct balance of productions staged both to attract wider audiences; raising the profile of the theatre among national theatre personalities and tourist audiences;

Features of Representational Meaning

Features of Representational Meaning While some, more or less radical, distinction between language and linguistic behaviour (between language and speech, language and communication, sentence and utterance) is universally assumed, the nature of the relation between them is less often addressed or characterised in a manner satisfactory in itself or consistent with the distinctions we wish to make. The more radical the distinction, the more urgent the question of their relation becomes. The paper sketches some of the problems and outlines a proposal. This takes the form of a Representational Hypothesis about the relation, designed to be consistent with (and render defensible) a very radical distinction between language and such behaviour. The discussion focuses on ambiguity both for itself and for illustrative purposes. It is suggested that ambiguity is not a linguistically semantic phenomenon and indeed not linguistic. 1. Rationale In the process of learning English, I have profoundly realized that English semantics is rather abstract with a large scope including word meaning, sentence meaning, utterrance meaning. Each type of meaning includes many different parts. For examples, sentence meaning has grammaticalitity, acceptability and meaningfullness, the principle of compositionality, variables in the function of sentence meaning, the representational meaning, the interpersonal meaning. It is rather complex and not used regularly in the fact. However, It is an essential part in syllabus for English major students. It provides the major knowledge of English language for the learners and help them deeply understand its characteristics and know the way to use it better and better, so they need to study it well but in fact, it is not easy at all. The learners have difficulties when using it. They spend much time on learning it, but the understanding of its characteristics is limmited. For the reason, a study on re presentational meaning one of basic part of English semantics has been chosen as the title of my assignment paper. 2. Aims of the study on the representational meaning Generally speaking, the representational meaning is abstract part in English semantics. It is not close to the fact. Therefore, the majority of learners have difficulties when using it. They make mistakes when distinguishing between types of the representational meaning. Therefore, this assignment paper focuses on the representational meaning with its scopes and characteristics to help learners well distinguish its types and use it flexibly and exactly in studying. 3. Scope of the study Semantics is large category in English language with its scopes such as word meaning, sentence meaning uterrance meaning. However, due to my limited knowledge, the writer only concentrate on the study on the representational meaning. It is particularized at the 3 main kinds of the representational meaning including processes, participants and circumstances with their definitions and characteristics. 4. The method of the study With the desire of making English representational meaning clear and specific, my methods of the study are data collection from having discussion with supervisors, friends, reading materials ( text books, referenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) and collecting typical examples. 5. Design of the study This study provides a clear organization consisting of three main parts that help an easy exploration and practical benefits gained for readers as well: Chapter one is the introduction including rationale, scope of the study, aims of the study, the method and design of the study; Chapter two is entiled development and divided into three parts: Part I is the theoretical background, Part II is the representational meaning including definitions and characteristics of its types and Part III is implication including the difficulties of the learners when using it and suggested sollution; Chapter three is conclusion, summarizing what have been discussed in the previous. 1. Theoritical Background 1.1. Semantics 1.1.1. Definition of semantics There are many authors who define semantics. Some of the most typical definitions listed as follows: Semantics is the systematic study of meaning in language. In other word, it is the study of how language organizes and expresses meaning. ( Nguyen Hoa, 2004) Semantics deals with the literal meaning of words and the meaning of the way they are combined, which taken together form the core of meaning or the starting point from which the whole meaning of a particular utterance is constructed. (Lyons (1995: Xii)) 1.1.2. The approaches of semantics There are 3 main approaches of semantics including lexical semantics, formal semantics and cognitive semantics. 1.1.2.1. Lexical semantics Lexical semantics is a field which deals mainly with word meaning and relations between them. It covers various theories of the word structure, the diffferences and similarities in lexical semantic structure between different languages and relationship of word meaning to sentence meaning and syntax. 1.1.2.2. Formal semantics Formal semantics is called formal since it attempt to adapt analytical techniques from formal logic to the study of meaning. It is concerned with relation between expressions especially sentences which express propositions. The basic tenet of formal semantics is that it considers proposition as the meaning of the sentence, which is identified with the set of possible words and it is concerned with its truth condition. The main focus of formal semantics is on truth conditions, entailment, reference, denotation, contracdition model, inference, quantification. 1.1.2.3. Cognitive semantics: Cognitive semantics is seen as mapping from linguistic expression to cognitive structures and laguage is seen as part of the cognitive structure. The main tenets of the cognitive semantics can be summarised as follows: a) Meaning is conceptualisation in the cognitive model. More precisely, it involves the mapping from the expression of the language to some mental entities and does not concern itself with such important concepts of formal semantics as reference and truth. Cognitive models are mainly perceptuallly determined as it happens cognitive structures are connected to our perceptual merchamisms either directly or indirectly. Thus, meaning are more or less perceptually grounded. Semantic elements are based on the spatial or to pological objects. Mental structures applied in cognitive semantics are the meaning of linguistic expression. Cognitive models are primarily image schematic. Semantics is primary to syntax and partly dermintes it . Concepts show prototype effect Cognitive semantics is concerned with important notions as perspective, imagery construal, figure ground organization, abstraction, conceptual metaphor. 1.1.3. Semantics properties Accepting the fact that the meaning of an expression can be viewed as combination of features, we can decompose the meaning of a word into what we call semantic features or properties. Consider the word mandate in the following example : E.g.:I think I have a mandate to make the government work again. Our adequate knowledge of the word mandate tell us that mandate is an authority given to somebody or organization by people who support. We will know that it is not like word responsibility which just means a duty, it is given to sombody or organization not an animal and especially by whose support it. Such features are called semantic features. They can used to define the meanings of a word. And the method involing the use of these properties is called componential method One and the same semantic feature may be part of the meaning of many different words. Female is a semantic property that helps to define: bich hen actress maiden doe more debutante widow ewe vixen girl woman We should also notice that the last word girl, woman are characterized by another property human. The following table shows how the componential method is employed to decompose the meaning of a number of word Property actress baby Girl bachelor mare human + + + + + female + . + + young + + (Fromkin et al, 1984: 167) There are many more properties which define the meaning of the word. Some scholar believe that it is possible to the limited number of these semantic properties that could be employed to defined the meaning of the lexicon of any language. However, there is much disagreement as to what constitues a semantic property. There are difficulties involved. For example, the word baby can not be defined either as male or female since a baby can be either sex. 1.1.4. Scopes of semantics 1.1.4.1. Word meaning 1.1.4.1.1. Form and Expression Word are also considered expression.Words and word form are distinguished from each other in terms of distinction between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. E.g.:cook cooks, cooking, cooked . Different forms of the word will share the same lexical meaning but different grammatical meaning . E.g.:Lovely, lovelier, loveliest. Different words may share grammatical meaning but different lexical meaning . E.g.: love, hate, eat, drink. 1.1.4.1.2. Lexical and grammatical meaning revisted The lexical meaning of the word really means the individual and reflective meaning of a word. The grammatical meaning can be defined as relationships between words based on contrastive features of arragements in which they occur. 1.1.4.1. 3. Components of word meaning There are 4 major components of word -meaning: a) Denotation which includes: conceptual and referential meanings; Denotation exists by virtue of what it refers to. b) Conotation including stylistic, affective, evaluative and intensifying is the pragmatic communicative value the words acquires by virture of where, when, how and by whom, for what purpose and in what context it is or may be used. c) Structural meaning, which is the meaning a word acquires by virtue of its membership in a system or a set. It includes reflected meaning, collative meaning, associative meaning and themantic meaning. d) Categorial meaning is one part of grammatical meaning which words derive from being a number of one category rather than another ( nouns rather verbs and so on ). Word fall in to such categories as Noun, verbs, Adjectives, Prepositions, conjunction. 1.1.4.1.4. Semantic field ( lexical field ) 1.1.4.1.4.1. Definition of semantic field A lexical / semantic field is the organization of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationships to one another. The value of a word is determined by defining it in relation to the value of neigbouring or contrasting words. Thus, the vocabulary of a language is viewed as an integrated system of lexems interrelated in sense. A semantic field is a set of interrelated senses based on a conceptual field or spectrum. E.g.:In terms of colour : 4 primary color terms: Blue, green, yellow, red. Environment : overfish, overexploit, pollute, contaminate, ozone depletion, rain forests. Beach : towel, umbrella, lotion, bikini, sand. Carpenter: lumber, nails, drills, saw, chisel. Dentist: filling, cavity, extract,pull. Degree of redness : red, Scarlet, orange, Crimson, rose. ( Arnold (1986) i.v) 1.1.4.1.4.2. Ways of grouping words Thematically Words of the same part of speech that cover the same conceptual field. E.g.: cooking: boil, bake, fry, broil, steam. Ideographically Words of different parts of speech but thematically related. E.g.: Holiday: to book ( a fight ), a package tour, hotel, luxurious, etc . 1.1.4.2. Sentence meaning 1.1.4.2.1 Definition of sentence meaning A sentence is a large unit of grammatical organization within which parts of speech (noun,verb, adjective ) and gramamatical classes ( word, phrase, clause) are said to function. In English, a sentence normally contains one independent clause. The meaning of a sentence is not the sum of the meaning of the word used in the sentence.It is what a sentence means regardless of context and situation in which it may be used . It is more correct to regard it as function of the meaning of the word used in the sentence, modality and structural meaning signaled by the way words are organized into sentence. 1.1.4.2.2. Proposition 1.1.4.2.2.1. Definition of proposition A proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some states of affairs. A proposition is defined as the invariant meaning expressed by a sentence, devoid of any modality. E.g.: She is probably right. Proposition: she is right . Modality: Probable impossible In semantics, the letters p, q, r are often used as symbols of propositions. Proposition involves in the meanings of not only declarative, but also interrogative and imperative sentence. E.g.: Is she right ? Be careful. The state of the affairs typically involves person or things referred to the expression in the sentence. In uttering a declarative sentence, a speaker typically asserts a proposition. 1.1.4.2.2.2. Proposition content A proposition usually consists of: (a) something which is named or talked about known as argument or entity, (b) an assertion or prediction made about the argument. E.g.: The man bit the dog. The dog bit the man. Predicate : Bite Two argument : Man, Dog The meaning of a sentence consists of the predicate, argument (s) and role of each argument. Arguments refer to entities white predicates deal with events, properties, attributes and states.Those individuals that are independent and can stand alone are arguments. Things like qualities, relations, actions and processes that are dependent and can not stand alone are termed predicates . E.g.:My computer Break down, fast, new. 1.1.4.2.2.3. Common types of semantic roles Semantic role Examples Agent /does She opened the door Affected Marry kicked the dog Effected She took deep breath Locative We reached London by mid night Instrument /Means The key open the door Recipient She gave me two books Goal He kicked the dog Experiencer I like the play. Carrier She is happy. Identified Bill Gate is the president Identifier Bill Gate is the president 1.1.4.3. Utterance 1.1.4.3.1. Definition of uterrance Utterance meaning is what a speaker means when he makes an utterance in a cercain situation. Utterances consist of performative and constative ones. 1.1.4.3.2. Types of utterances 1.1.4.3.2.1. Performative utterance: A performative utterance is one that actually describes the act that it performs. It performs some acts and simultenously describes that act. E.g.: I promise to pay you tomorrow. A typical performative utterrance usually contains the first person pronoun E.g.: I promise; I congratulateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. These are all verbs describing speech acts. We classify them and performative verbs. 1.1.4.3.2.2. Constative utterances A constative utterance is one which makes an assertion. It is often the utterance of a declarative sentence, but is not performative. Eg: I am trying to get this box with screwdriver. It is a constative utterance because because it makes an assertion about a particular state of affair but not performative. The utterance does not simultenously describe and perform the same act. 2. The representational Meaning 2.1. The representational meaning The representational meaning is rather abtract in English semantics. Therefore the learners need to pay much attention to its genneral characteristics as follows to approach and study it easily. According to Halliday, the experiential subcomponent of the representational meaning provides an acount of the underlying content of a sentence or an utterance. It handles within its scopes: Processes: actions, events, states, relations. Participating entities ( participants): persons, objects, abstractions. Circumstances: time, places, reasons, conditions, resultsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ which are associated with the process. We all know that the nominal group represents the various types of participants. The verbal groups denote the process. And other types of units like the prepositional phrases of adverbial clauses realize the circumstance component. E.g.: She kicked the dog out of the house. The participants realized by NPs: she and the dog The process realized by the verb: kicked The circumstance realized by the PP : out of the house. The relationships between processes, participants, and their circumstance are expressed through what Halliday terms transitivity network. Transitivity really means going through or extending to another entity. On the dimension of transitivity, clauses may be organized in to two types : The transitive and the ergative sentences to accommodate better the situation regarding the catual occurrence of sentence patterns. In transitive sentence, the most prominent roles are actor, goal, if the process is one of the action E.g.: I bought my wife a cake. Or they are attributor and attributantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸. If the process is one of ascription ( attribution ) E.g.:Bill Gates is the richest man in the world. In the ergative type, the central roles are the causer of the process and the affected the participant affected by the process. E.g.: Everyone likes the play. It is possible to rephrase it into the play pleases everyone or the play causes him to like itself . Those sentences involving action process as defined above are called extensive, and those concerned with ascription ( attribution ) as termed intensive. Halliday also introduces another basic distinction between effective and descriptive extensive transitive sentences. (a) Effective sentences The action is goal directed or targed at another object called goal. This means that the sentence has to involve at least two participants. E.g.: I bought a car. Some sentences may have three participants. E.g.:I gave her a flower. (b) Descriptive sentences It involves non directed action since the sentence is associated with just one participant. E.g.: The recruits marched. Actor the recruits, Process marched . Halliday speaks of another type called nuclear. (c) Nuclear setences It is the one associated with the either one or two participants. E.g.: Mary open the door. The door opened. The door was opened (by Mary). However there exists a possibility of transforming The recruits marched into the sergeant marched the recruits. To account for this sentence, Halliday uses another role, which is that of initiator, discretely from the actor role. Thus, we have: Initiator the sergeant process marched Actor recruits And the logical subcomponent handles logical relations between various types of elements of sentence and such relation as subordination and apposition. 2.2. Functions of the representational meaning The representational meaning can be defined in terms of experiential and logical functions. 2.2.1. The experiential function is to communicate ideas It is the main fucntion by which a speaker expresses the content elements of his utterance, by refering to people, objects, states of affairs, events, qualities, places, actions and circumstances, all of which are parts of the world we live in. E.g.: Bill Gates gave me books to read after each session. 2.2.2. The logical function relates ideas to each other on an equal or subordinate basis: E.g.: I came, I saw and I conquered. ( equal) The rise in Microsoft stock in 1996 meant that he made on paper about $30 million a day. (subordinate) 2.3. Scopes of representational meaning 2.3.1. The process Process is a powerful concept which represents the possible world as consisting of going on: doing, happening, feeling and being. Halliday (1994: 106-107 ) states that the processes in a language like English are constructed by the transitivity system. He also makes a distinction between what humans experience as going on out there, in the world around us and what we experience as going inside ourself. Thus the main type of the process that expresses out outer experience is called material process as opposed against the mental one that expresses our inner experience. But there is a third important element to be added. We learn to genneralize to relate or connect our experience. This process is termed relational. According to Halliday, the bounderies of the three main types of process are further ones not clearly set apart, but nevertheness recognizable as intermedinate between the different pairs. Thus, between material and mental processes, we find behavioural process: those that represent outer manifestation of our inner working, the acting out of processes of conciousness and physiological states. The borderline of mental and relational processes are verbal processes that represent symbolic relationship constructed in human consciousness and enacted in the form of the language. The last one is the existential processes between the material and relational which are concerned with existtence [Halliday, 1994:107] 2.3.1.1. Types of processes: 2.3.1.1.1. Material processes: processes of doing2.3.1.1.1.1. Definition of material processes: Material processes are those that express our outer experiences. 2.3.1.1.1.2. Characteristics of material processes: The matreial processes usually involve one or two enties : An actor + a goal If there is one enties, it is the actor E.g.: The lion sprang. Jack fell down. If there are two enties, they are the actor and goal. In this case: The actor can do something to the goal. E.g.:She hit the ball. The lion caught the tourist. The actor can create or bring about the goal. E.g.:He has built a fortune along away. Material processes are processes of doing. They express the notion that some entity does something which may be done to some other entity. So we can ask about or probe material processes by using the verb do E.g.: what did the lion do?. What did the lion do to the tourist?. If there is goal of the process, as well as an Actor, the representation may come in either of two forms : either active, the lion caught the tourist, or passive, the tourist was caught by the lion. 1.The the 2.The by the lion lion Caught tourist tourist was caught Actor Process Goal Goal process Actor Figure 1: active and passive clauses. Material process are not necessarily concrete, physical events; they may be abstract doing and happening E.g.:The mayor resigned. ActorProcess The presidentdissolvedthe committee. Actor processgoal 3. Implication: The Difficulties of Learners When Using Representational and Suggested Sollution 3.1.The difficulties of learners when using representational meaning Due to the abstract, complex characteristics of the representational meaning, the learners particularly the students of English department have the difficulties in the processing of studying and using it in some following cases: 3.1.1. Distinguishing between attributive and identifying: Intensive type of relational processes is rather complex. It comes into two distinct modes: attributive and identifying with characteristic of each mode. Therefore, the learners have difficulties distinguishing between them. E.g.:He is a smart boy. In the above sentence, they misunderstand between two characteristics of attributive and identifying. They particulaly consider a smart boy as a characteristic of identifying but in fact, a mart boy is attributive. It has an indefinite article a, a typical feature of attributive. In addition, the line between the attributive and identifying modes is less clear in the circumstantial than in the intensive type of relational clause. It is less obvious whether an expression such as on the mat designates a class (that has members the class of things that are on the mat) or an identity (the thing that is identified by being on the mat.). 3.1.2. Distinguishing between types of relational processes in the following cases The relational processes have complex, large characteristics. The English system of relational processes operates with three main types: intensive, circumstantial, processive. Each of these come in to distinct modes: Attributive: a is atrribute of x Identifying : a is the identity of x In circumtantial processes atrributive , circumstance is expressed in the form of the attribute and the form of process. In circumstantial processes identify, the circumstance takes the form of a relationship between two entities. The relationship is expressed either as a feature of the participants or as a feature of the process. In possessive processes attributive, the possessive relationship may be expressed either as attribute or as process. In possessive processes identifying, possessive relationship is expressed either as a feature of participants or as a feature of process. With these complex, large charateristics, the learners make mistakes when distinguishing between the types of relational processes. E.g.: Peter has a piano. Peter owns the piano. The learners always make mistakes between 2 two verbs has, owns. They consider them as possessive attribute. But only the verb has is one of possessive attributive, the verb own is the case of possessive -identifying. Therefore, they incorrectly identify entities : carrier attributive, identified identifier. 3.1.3 Distinguishing between mental and behavioural processes: Participant of behavioural processes who is behaving, label